The central dogma states that the flow of genetic information is from DNA to RNA to protein, and not in reverse.

Transcription is the process by which the information in a DNA sequence is copied into a complementary RNA molecule.

RNA polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template during transcription.

The genetic code is the set of rules that determine how the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA is translated into the sequence of amino acids in a protein.

Translation is the process by which the genetic information encoded in mRNA is used to synthesize a specific polypeptide or protein.

The major steps in translation are initiation, elongation, and termination.

Ribosomes are large molecular complexes that serve as the site for protein synthesis, where translation of mRNA into polypeptides takes place.

The three main types of RNA involved in translation are messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules carry specific amino acids and deliver them to the ribosome during translation, where they are incorporated into the growing polypeptide chain.

Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to produce a functional gene product, such as a protein or a functional RNA molecule.

Constitutive gene expression refers to genes that are continuously expressed, while regulated gene expression refers to genes whose expression is controlled by various regulatory mechanisms.

Transcription factors are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences and regulate the transcription of genes by either promoting or inhibiting the binding of RNA polymerase.

DNA replication is the process by which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied to produce two identical DNA molecules.

DNA helicase is an enzyme that unwinds the double-stranded DNA molecule by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs, allowing the DNA to be replicated.

DNA polymerase is an enzyme that synthesizes new strands of DNA by adding nucleotides complementary to the template DNA strand.

DNA ligase is an enzyme that joins the fragments of DNA by forming phosphodiester bonds between adjacent nucleotides, sealing the gaps between the newly synthesized DNA fragments.

Euchromatin is a lightly packed form of chromatin that is transcriptionally active, while heterochromatin is a tightly packed form of chromatin that is generally transcriptionally inactive.

Histones are proteins that provide the structural backbone around which DNA is wrapped, forming nucleosomes and higher-order chromatin structures.

DNA repair is a collection of processes by which cells identify and correct damage to the DNA molecules that encode the genome.

The main types of DNA repair mechanisms include direct reversal, excision repair, mismatch repair, and double-strand break repair.

Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that converts glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, releasing a small amount of energy in the form of ATP and NADH.

Hexokinase is the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of glycolysis, phosphorylating glucose to form glucose-6-phosphate.

The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle, is a series of chemical reactions that occurs in the mitochondria and is a key part of aerobic respiration, generating energy in the form of ATP.

Pyruvate dehydrogenase is the enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA, which is the entry point for the citric acid cycle.

Oxidative phosphorylation is the metabolic pathway in which cells use enzymes to oxidize nutrients and produce ATP, the primary energy currency of the cell.

The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors, driving the synthesis of ATP through the process of oxidative phosphorylation.

ATP synthase is an enzyme complex that uses the proton gradient generated by the electron transport chain to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and some other organisms convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates, releasing oxygen as a byproduct.

Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and some other photosynthetic organisms that contain the green pigment chlorophyll and are the site of photosynthesis.

The light-dependent reactions in photosynthesis convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH, while the light-independent reactions, also known as the Calvin cycle, use the ATP and NADPH to convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds.

Rubisco (Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase) is an enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the Calvin cycle, the addition of carbon dioxide to a five-carbon sugar, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate.

The principle of dominance states that when an individual has two different alleles for a trait, one allele (the dominant allele) will be expressed over the other (the recessive allele).

The genotype refers to the genetic makeup of an individual, while the phenotype refers to the observable characteristics or traits resulting from the expression of the genotype and the influence of the environment.

Meiosis is a specialized type of cell division that produces four haploid cells from a single diploid cell, reducing the chromosome number by half and allowing for genetic variation through the processes of crossing over and random segregation of homologous chromosomes.

Mitosis is a type of cell division that produces two genetically identical daughter cells from a single parent cell, while meiosis is a specialized type of cell division that produces four genetically distinct haploid cells from a single diploid parent cell.

The principle of independent assortment states that the inheritance of alleles for different traits is independent of one another during the formation of gametes in meiosis.

Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes during meiosis, resulting in new combinations of alleles and contributing to genetic variation.

DNA mutation is a change in the nucleotide sequence of the DNA molecule, which can lead to changes in the genetic information and potentially alter the function or expression of a gene.

The main types of DNA mutations include point mutations (substitutions, insertions, and deletions), frameshift mutations, and chromosomal mutations (duplications, inversions, and translocations).

The principle of gene interaction states that the expression of a phenotype can be influenced by the combined effects of multiple genes interacting with each other and the environment.

Gene regulation is the process by which the expression of genes is controlled, ensuring that the correct genes are expressed at the right time, in the right cells, and in the appropriate amounts.

Epigenetics involves heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve changes in the DNA sequence itself, but rather through modifications of the chromatin structure or DNA methylation patterns.

Protein folding is the process by which a polypeptide chain acquires its three-dimensional structure, which is essential for its proper function.

Chaperone proteins assist in the proper folding of other proteins by preventing misfolding and aggregation, and facilitating the correct folding process.

Metabolic pathways are a series of sequential chemical reactions that occur within a cell, catalyzed by enzymes, that are responsible for various cellular processes, such as energy production, biosynthesis, and degradation of molecules.