Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, and a large central vacuole, while animal cells lack these structures. Plant cells are generally larger and more rigid, while animal cells are smaller and more flexible.

The central dogma states that genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to proteins, and not in the reverse direction.

The three main types of RNA are messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

Ribosomes are the cellular organelles where protein synthesis takes place. They read the mRNA sequence and assemble amino acids into polypeptide chains.

Prokaryotic cells (like bacteria) lack membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells (like plant and animal cells) have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

Mitochondria are the organelles responsible for producing ATP through cellular respiration, which is the process of breaking down glucose and releasing energy.

Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells that perform photosynthesis, the process of converting light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose.

Mitosis is a type of cell division that produces two genetically identical daughter cells, while meiosis is a specialized type of cell division that produces four genetically different daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes.

Enzymes are biological catalysts that increase the rate of chemical reactions without being consumed or altered in the process. They lower the activation energy required for reactions to occur.

Autotrophs are organisms that can produce their own food from inorganic sources, while heterotrophs obtain their energy and nutrients by consuming other organisms or organic matter.

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy currency in cells. It provides the energy needed for various cellular processes, such as protein synthesis, active transport, and muscle contraction.

The cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that surrounds and protects the cell. It regulates the movement of materials in and out of the cell and maintains the cell's internal environment.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic material that carries the instructions for the development and functioning of living organisms. It stores and transmits hereditary information from one generation to the next.

Genotype refers to the genetic makeup of an organism, while phenotype refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, which are determined by both genetic and environmental factors.

Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that regulate various body processes, such as growth, development, metabolism, and reproduction.

The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments (microtubules and microfilaments) that provide structural support, shape, and movement to cells. It is involved in processes like cell division, intracellular transport, and cell motility.

Aerobic respiration is a process that requires oxygen and produces ATP, carbon dioxide, and water as byproducts. Anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen and produces less ATP, but also produces lactic acid or alcohol as byproducts.

The immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect the body from foreign invaders, such as viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens.

The skeletal system provides structural support and protection for the body, enables movement through its attachment to muscles, produces blood cells, and stores minerals like calcium and phosphorus.

The digestive system is a group of organs responsible for breaking down food into nutrients that can be absorbed and used by the body. It includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and accessory organs like the liver and pancreas.

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and other autotrophs convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen, using light energy. It is a crucial part of the carbon cycle, as it removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and produces oxygen.

Endotherms (warm-blooded animals) can regulate their body temperature through metabolic processes, while ectotherms (cold-blooded animals) rely on external sources of heat to maintain their body temperature.

Plant hormones, such as auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins, regulate various aspects of plant growth and development, including cell division, elongation, differentiation, and responses to environmental stimuli.

Positive feedback loops amplify a change in the body, moving it away from homeostasis, while negative feedback loops counteract changes and help maintain homeostasis by returning the body to its normal state.

The circulatory system is a network of blood vessels, including the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries, that transports blood, oxygen, nutrients, and other substances throughout the body. It also removes waste products.

The excretory system, which includes the kidneys, liver, lungs, and skin, is responsible for removing metabolic waste products and excess water from the body.

Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes to produce genetically diverse offspring, while asexual reproduction involves the production of new individuals from a single parent, resulting in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent.

The nervous system is a complex network of neurons and specialized cells that transmit signals between different parts of the body. It is responsible for coordinating and regulating various body functions, including movement, sensation, and cognition.

The respiratory system, which includes the lungs, trachea, and associated structures, is responsible for gas exchange, supplying oxygen to the body and removing carbon dioxide waste.

Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration, while osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to a region of lower water concentration.

The endocrine system is a collection of glands that produce and secrete hormones, which are chemical messengers that regulate various body processes, such as growth, development, metabolism, and reproduction.

The musculoskeletal system is composed of bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints. It provides structural support, protection, and movement to the body, and enables locomotion and other physical activities.

The reproductive system is responsible for the production of gametes (sperm and eggs) and the development and delivery of offspring. It includes the gonads (testes and ovaries), as well as associated structures and hormones.

Diploid cells contain two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent, while haploid cells contain only a single set of chromosomes.

Transpiration is the process by which water vapor is released from the leaves and other parts of plants. It plays a crucial role in the transport of water and minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant.

Viruses are non-living, infectious particles composed of genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat, while bacteria are living, single-celled microorganisms that can reproduce independently.

The lymphatic system is a network of tissues, organs, and vessels that play a crucial role in the body's immune response and fluid balance. It helps remove waste, toxins, and other unwanted materials from the body.

Active transport requires the expenditure of energy (ATP) to move substances against their concentration gradient, while passive transport moves substances down their concentration gradient without the need for energy input.

The integumentary system, which includes the skin, hair, and nails, serves as a protective barrier against environmental factors, regulates body temperature, and plays a role in sensory perception.

Convergent evolution occurs when unrelated species evolve similar traits due to adaptation to similar environments or ecological niches, while divergent evolution occurs when related species evolve different traits as they adapt to different environments or niches.

The muscular system is responsible for movement, posture, and support. It consists of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles that work together to generate force and facilitate various bodily functions.

Inspiration is the process of breathing in air, which brings oxygen into the lungs, while expiration is the process of breathing out air, which removes carbon dioxide from the lungs.

The circulatory system is responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs for expiration. It facilitates the gas exchange necessary for cellular respiration.

Chromatin is the complex of DNA and proteins that make up the genetic material in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. During cell division, chromatin condenses into distinct structures called chromosomes.

The nervous system plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis by receiving and integrating information from various parts of the body and coordinating appropriate responses through the endocrine and muscular systems to maintain a stable internal environment.

A heterozygous genotype refers to an organism having two different alleles for a particular gene, while a homozygous genotype refers to an organism having two identical alleles for a gene.

The skeletal system plays a crucial role in calcium homeostasis by storing and releasing calcium ions as needed. Bones act as a reservoir for calcium, which is essential for various bodily functions, including muscle contraction and nerve signal transmission.

In commensalism, one organism benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed, whereas in mutualism, both organisms benefit from their interaction.

The nervous system plays a crucial role in the fight-or-flight response, which is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived threat. The sympathetic nervous system stimulates the release of hormones like adrenaline, preparing the body for action.